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Regulatory BodyDelhi Sultanate
The invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni and Mohd. Ghori into India ultimately resulted in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Five different dynasties–the Slave, the Khalji, the Tughlaq, the Sayyids, and the Lodhi’s are collectively referred to as the Delhi Sultanate. The rulers, termed as Sultans, were of Turkish and Afghan origin. Not only did they extend their rule over North India (i.e., Malwa and Gujarat), but they also penetrated into the Deccan and South India. The Sultanate’s rule resulted in far-reaching changes in the Indian society, administration and cultural life.
Vasco da Gama took an ocean route that ▷rounded southern tip of Africa and after making stops in Kenya, specifically at Mombasa and Malindi where he was helped by ▷Omani seafarer with the directions to the subcontinent . He thereby successfully discovered the sea route to India and Landed on May 20th, 1498 the port of Calicut where he was granted a friendly reception by the ▷ruler
1. Slave Dynasty
✦ Death of Muhammad Ghori (1206): The assassination of Ghori created a power vacuum, allowing his Turkish slaves/generals to contest for authority.
✦ Aibak’s Administrative Base: Aibak had already been acting as the viceroy (Naib-us-Sultanate) of Ghori’s Indian possessions, providing him with a strong foundation in Delhi and Lahore.
✦ Separation from Ghazni: Aibak refused to submit to Tajuddin Yaldauz (another of Ghori’s slaves who took Ghazni), choosing to break ties and establish an independent Sultanate in India.
✦ Military Expansion: Aibak, and subsequently Iltutmish, were skilled military leaders who solidified control over northern India, overcoming local resistance.
✦Consolidation by Iltutmish: Although Aibak founded the dynasty, Iltutmish (1211–1236) is considered the real consolidator, who moved the capital to Delhi, obtained legal sanction from the Caliph, and organized the administrative system (Iqta system).
✦ Slave-General Tradition: The Mamluk system, which elevated capable slaves to high military/administrative positions, produced efficient rulers who succeeded Ghori.
The Slave Dynasty (also known as the Mamluk Dynasty) was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, ruling from 1206 to 1290. The rulers were of Turkic origin, and the term “Mamluk” signifies that many were formerly slaves who rose to become powerful military generals and later rulers.
Qutb ud -Din Aibak
✦ About Him: Born in Turkestan around 1150 CE, Aibak belonged to the Aibak tribe. As a child, he was sold into slavery and purchased by the Qazi of Nishapur in Persia. He was later resold as a slave boy in Ghazni, to the ▷Sultan . He recognized his talent, freed him, and initially gave him a significant military appointment of ▷Amir-i-Akhuri He rose up the Ranks and become the most trusted of Turkic generals of Sultan Ghori.
⟢ Titles He was given▷title. Qutbuddin Aibak wasn’t considered a fully sovereign ruler because he didn’t formally assume the title of Sultan, nor did he have the Khutba read or coins issued in his name
⟢ Death He died after sustaining injuries
⟢ Court Scholars Patronised: Hasan Nizami and Fakh-ul-din
✦ Works
⟢ Consolidation over Expansion: Aibak focused primarily on strengthening his position and consolidating the existing territory rather than aggressive expansion. To secure his throne against rivals like Taj al-Din Yildiz and Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, he used diplomacy and matrimonial alliances (e.g., marrying his daughter to Iltutmish).
⟢ Administrative Setup: Laid the initial groundwork for the central administration of the Delhi Sultanate. Moved the seat of power to Lahore, which helped in managing the affairs of the northwest
⟢ Religious Policy: While he was a patron of Islamic culture, contemporary chroniclers noted his destruction of temples and the construction of mosques, including the Quwwat-ul-Islam in Delhi and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer.
✦ Conquests and Acheivements – Follow Timeline
Aram Shah
✦ Origins Aram Shah’s background is obscure, and his exact relationship to Qutb ud-Din Aibak is uncertain. While some historical manuscripts refer to him as “bin Aibak” (eldest son of Aibak), other texts suggest Aibak had no sons and only daughters. Aram Shah was the second sultan of the Mamluk Sultanate. He was appointed to the throne from Lahore by
✦ Title He assumed the title of Sultan after ascending the throne.
✦ Conquests and Acheivements – Incompetent and weak ruler, with no major military or administrative achievements.
✦ Death: Aram Shah was defeated and killed in battle by Iltutmish in 1211 AD near Delhi. Iltutmish seized the power, and later defeated Aram Shah’s forces at Bagh-i Jud (Lodhi Garden)
Iltutmish
✦ Origins He belonged to the Ilbari tribe and hence his dynasty also known as the Ilbari dynasty. ltutmish disposed of Aram Shah and became the Sultan. The real consolidator of Turkish rule in India. Secured his throne from his rivals. Legends describe that his half-brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak, who made him his-son-in law by giving his daughter in marriage to him. Later, Aibak appointed him as the Iqtadar of Gwalior.
✦ Title Iltutmish held several significant titles, most notably “Sultan of Hindustan,” “Nasir-amir-ul-mominin” (Helper of the Commander of the Faithful), and “Sultan-i-Azam,” all granted by the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad. He also assumed the title “Shamsuddin,” meaning “Sun of Faith,” and was sometimes called the “slave of a slave” before his rise to power.
✦ Court Scholars Patronised Minhas-us-siraj (contemporary historian) who wrote Tahaqqat-i-Nasuri.
✦ Conquests and Acheivements – Follow his Military Conquests either through the Map or Timeline
✦ Policies
⟢ Administrative Reforms: To manage the growing empire, Iltutmish implemented the Iqta system, assigning land tracts to Turkish officers (Iqtadars) instead of cash salaries. These officers were responsible for collecting revenue, maintaining law and order, and providing military support to the Sultan.
⟢ Monetary Reforms: He was the first to introduce a uniform, standardized coinage for the Delhi Sultanate: the silver Tanka (175 grains) and the copper Jital. This stabilized the economy and facilitated trade.
⟢ Political Consolidation:Iltutmish formed an elite corps of 40 loyal Turkish slaves/nobles to hold key administrative and military positions, strengthening his authority.
⟢ Military Expansion While he expanded the Sultanate by conquering Ranthambore, Gwalior, and reclaiming Bengal and Bihar.He wisely avoided direct conflict with Genghis Khan by refusing to shelter the Khwarizm prince, Jalaluddin, thereby sparing the young Sultanate from Mongol destruction.
⟢ Legitimacy and Foreign Relations: In 1229, Iltutmish secured a deed of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad, which legitimized his position as the Sultan of Delhi and solidified his authority over other Turkish contenders
⟢ Religious Policy :He was generally tolerant of the Hindu population despite pressure from advisors and promoted the development of Delhi as a city of cultural significance.
✦ Death After continuous military campaigns, he fell severely ill during a campaign against Bayana and could not recover. He was laid to rest in a tomb he built himself in 1235, located in the Qutub complex
Razia Sultana
✦ Origins – First and only female Muslim ruler of medieval India. Razia, the daughter of Delhi Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish, . Turkan Khatun, Razia’s mother and the chief wife of Iltutmish, was a daughter of Qutb ud-Din Aibak.
Razia held the status of being the eldest daughter of Iltutmish, likely his first-born child. Razia justified her claim to the throne despite being a woman by recalling that in his life time, her father Iltutmish had nominated her as his successor in preference to his sons.
✦ Title – adopted the formal title Jalālat-ud-Dīn Raziya upon ascending the throne. She was also referred to as Sultan Raziyat-Ud-Dunya Wa Ud-Din (Pillar of Women, Queen of the Times), rejecting the term ‘Sultana’ (meaning “king’s wife”) to establish her authority as a monarch.
✦ Court Scholars – Patronised Minhas-us-siraj (contemporary historian) who wrote Tahaqqat-i-Nasuri.
✦ Conquests and Acheivements – Follow her Military Conquests either through the Map or Timeline
✦ Policies
⟢ Administrative Reform & Meritocracy – Razia appointed officials based on ability rather than noble lineage, which challenged the established Turkish nobility (Chihalgani). She insisted on being addressed as “Sultan,” not “Sultana”.
⟢ Military and Security – She was a hands-on leader who commanded armies in person to suppress revolts. She adopted a policy of strengthening the central government, reducing the power of provincial governors.
⟢ Economic and Monetary Policy – She introduced new, high-quality silver coins (taka) to promote trade and commerce.
⟢ Justice and Social Policy – Known for her impartial justice, she was accessible to her subjects and disregarded religious discrimination in her administration. She Discarded female apparel and purdah; she held court with her face unveiled. She began to adorn herself in male attire and rode out in public on an elephant, went for hunting, and led the army. This aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles.
⟢ Diplomatic Strategy – When facing major rebellions early in her reign, she used diplomatic tactics, including creating rifts among the rebel leaders to protect her throne.
⟢ Cultural Policy – Razia supported the arts and culture, fostering a vibrant intellectual environment. She established schools and promoted literary translation. She encouraged the study of various disciplines, including traditional sciences and literature from different cultures.Razia was an accomplished poetess herself, contributing to the literary landscape of the time.She was known for her secularism, promoting intellectual pursuits for both Hindu and Muslim communities.
Manuekl Antonio Vassalo e Silva
✦ Appointed as the 128th Governor-General of Portuguese India by Dictator-for-Life Salazar.
✦ Tenure: 1958-1961
✦ He was the Last Portuguese Governor of India
✦ His tenure marked the end of about 450 years of Portuguese rule in India as On December 19, 1961, the Indian government launched Operation Vijay, resulting in the annexation of Goa and other Portuguese-held territories.
Establishment of Delhi Sultanate
The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526. However the real credit of establishment of Muslim rule in India goes to who after death of Mohammad defeated other contenders to the throne and started slave dynasty rule.
Aibak a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori, was made the governor of Ghori’s Indian possessions after the Battle of Tarain. After the death of Ghori in c. 1206 CE, Tajuddin, the ruler of Ghazni, claimed his rule over Delhi and Nasiruddin, along with him the governor of Multan and Uchch aspired for independence. Along with this all, he also had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs. The successor of Jaichand, Harishchandra, had driven out the Turks from. However, Aibak was able to win over his enemies by conciliatory measures as well as a display of power. He defeated Yaldauz and severed all connections with Ghazni. Aibak also re conquered both Badayun and Farukhabad and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate
Administration
Central Administration
Kingship: The kingship theory of the Delhi Sultanate was inspired by the Islamic world. It was actually a theocracy. Most of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate called themselves as the deputy of . They included the name of the Caliph in the prayer or and inscribed it on their coins. This practice was even continued by Balban, who called himself. Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and Firoz Tughlaq obtained mansur (letter of investiture) from the Caliph. Note : Ala-ud-din Mubarak Khalji alone was an exception to it
The title of ‘Sultan’ was started by Turkish rulers and was the first to assume the title of Sultan. The office of the Sultan was the most important in the Sultanate . He was all powerful and ultimate authority for the military, legal, and political matters. The dispensation of justice was another important function performed by the Sultan.
There was no clear law of succession during this period. All the sons had equal claim to the throne. Interestingly, the idea of primogeniture was fully acceptable neither to the Muslims nor to the Hindus. Iltutmish even nominated his daughter in preference to his sons. But such nominations or successions were to be mostly accepted by the nobles. Nobles comprised the ruling class and belonged to different tribes and nationalities like Largely Turkish, but also Persian, Arabic, Egyptian and Indian Muslims. They Performed various Functions. Their relationship with the Sultan varied according to the character and capability of the Sultan.
Central Ministers: The Sultan was assisted by a number of ministers who headed different departments and aided in administration. However, they did not form a council . Each minister was appointed by the sultan and held office during his pleasure. Some of the Important Posts were –
| Naib | This was the most powerful post after Sultan. The Naib practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan and exercised general control over all the departments. |
| Wazir | He was also called as the Prime Minister. He also headed the finance department called Diwan-i-Wizarat. |
| Ariz-i-mumalik | He was the Defence or War minister. He was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and administering the military department called Diwan-i-Arz. Note: He was not the commander-in-chief of the army, since the Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief |
| Sadr / Sadr-us-Sudur | The Sadr-us Sadur was the head of the ecclesiastical department . His chief duty was to protect the laws of the Shariat.The office of the Sadr used to distribute allowances and stipends to eligible persons and religious institutions. |
| Dabir-i-Khas | |
| Barid-i-Mumalik | |
| Wakil-i-Dar | |
| Qazi-i-mumalik |
Provincial Administration
Far far away, behind the word mountains, far from the countries Vokalia and Consonantia, there live the blind texts. Separated they live in Bookmarksgrove right at the coast of the Semantics, a large language ocean.
Important Department and their Working
Far far away, behind the word mountains, far from the countries Vokalia and Consonantia, there live the blind texts. Separated they live in Bookmarksgrove right at the coast of the Semantics, a large language ocean.
Social System
The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526. However the real credit of establishment of Muslim rule in India goes to Qutb-ud-din Aibak who after death of Mohammed Ghori defeated other contenders to the throne and started slave dynasty rule.
Aibak a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori, was made the governor of Ghori’s Indian possessions after the Battle of Tarain. After the death of Ghori in c. 1206 CE, Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni, claimed his rule over Delhi and Nasiruddin Qabacha, the governor of Multan and Uchch aspired for independence. Along with this all, he also had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs. The successor of Jaichand, Harishchandra, had driven out the Turks from Badayun and Farukhabad. However, Aibak was able to win over his enemies by conciliatory measures as well as a display of power. He defeated Yaldauz and severed all connections with Ghazni. Aibak also re conquered both Badayun and Farukhabad and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate
Economy
The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526. However the real credit of establishment of Muslim rule in India goes to Qutb-ud-din Aibak who after death of Mohammed Ghori defeated other contenders to the throne and started slave dynasty rule.
Aibak a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori, was made the governor of Ghori’s Indian possessions after the Battle of Tarain. After the death of Ghori in c. 1206 CE, Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni, claimed his rule over Delhi and Nasiruddin Qabacha, the governor of Multan and Uchch aspired for independence. Along with this all, he also had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs. The successor of Jaichand, Harishchandra, had driven out the Turks from Badayun and Farukhabad. However, Aibak was able to win over his enemies by conciliatory measures as well as a display of power. He defeated Yaldauz and severed all connections with Ghazni. Aibak also re conquered both Badayun and Farukhabad and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate
Art and Culture
Qutbuddin Aibak
(1206 AD -1210 AD)
Far far away, behind the word mountains, far from the countries Vokalia and Consonantia, there live the blind texts. Separated they live in Bookmarksgrove right at the coast of the Semantics, a large language ocean.
Aram Shah (1210-1211 AD)
Far far away, behind the word mountains, far from the countries Vokalia and Consonantia, there live the blind texts. Separated they live in Bookmarksgrove right at the coast of the Semantics, a large language ocean.
Shamshuddin Iltutmish
Far far away, behind the word mountains, far from the countries Vokalia and Consonantia, there live the blind texts. Separated they live in Bookmarksgrove right at the coast of the Semantics, a large language ocean.
Mamluk Dynasty
Khilji Dynasty
According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern-day Goan culture.[14] The Negroids were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.[14]
The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan, with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory.[15] Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.[16]
During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer. The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono, meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. Anthill worship still continues in Goa
Tughlaq Dynasty
According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern-day Goan culture.[14] The Negroids were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.[14]
The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan, with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory.[15] Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.[16]
During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer. The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono, meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. Anthill worship still continues in Goa
Saiyyad Dynasty
According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern-day Goan culture.[14] The Negroids were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.[14]
The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan, with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory.[15] Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.[16]
During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer. The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono, meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. Anthill worship still continues in Goa
Lodi Dynasty
According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern-day Goan culture.[14] The Negroids were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.[14]
The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan, with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory.[15] Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.[16]
During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer. The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono, meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. Anthill worship still continues in Goa
Society
The theocratic democracy of Sumer was transformed into the oligarchic democracy of village-administration in Goa known as Gaumkari, when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the Gaukars. Sumerians view that the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the Gaumkari system where the village’s preeminent deity’s temple was the centre of all the activities.[17] It consisted of definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social, religious and cultural interaction. Gaumkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of Goa itself.[18]
Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gaumkari existed in Goa. This form of village-administration was called as Gaumponn (Konkani:गांवपण), and despite the periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaumponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were extraterritorial).[19] This system for governance became further systematised and fortified, and it has continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the true sense.[18]
Areas & Evidences
The Girnar rockcut edicts of the great Mauryan emperor Ashoka of Pataliputra (Patna) refer to the people of the Konkan, and their rules as the Bhojas who were the vassals of the Maurya empire.
The Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and approximately half of the North Kanara district.
Society
During this era Buddhism was introduced to Goa. A native Goan named Purna, also known as Punna in Pali, who traveled to Sarnath is considered a direct disciple of Buddha, popularised Buddhism in Goa in 5th century B.C. Vestiges of Buddhism of the Hinayana sect, belonging to the pre Christian era have been found at Rivona, Lamgaon, Harvalem and near Priol. According to the Buddhist text of Amavatur and Saddarmaratnakare composed in a later period, Punna, was originally a resident of Sunapurant, identified with the present Goan region from the village of Zambaulim. Purna was received into the Buddhist fold by the Buddha himself and helped spread that faith in this region and further south up to Sri Lanka of today.
Purna is reported to have transformed the Goan people, once violent and rancorous, into a peaceful and benevolent community. A stone statue of the Buddha in the meditation pose was discovered in Colvale village in Bardez in Northern Goa. It is believed to belong to the 2nd century AD, apparently influenced by Greek art.
It may be noted that the Buddhist monk Dharmarakshita, deputed by the emperor Asoka to the Rashtrakutas and the Bhojas from the Konkan, was a Greek convert to Buddhism. Traces of Buddhism and Jainism too have been found in Chandor, about 66 kms. from Panaji in Salcete. The Kadamba kings who ruled from Gopakapattam for a couple of centuries had wholeheartedly adopted the religion, to an extent of discriminating against their earlier Hindu coreligionists before returning to their original fold.