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Regulatory BodyExogenic Geomorphic Processes [Erosional and Depositional]
Land surfaces are also sculpted into a wide diversity of shapes through Erosion and Deposition by the actions of water, wind, waves, ice, etc
1. Fluvial Landforms
1.1 Fluvial Erosional Landforms
Oxbow Lake
Point Bars and Cut Banks
Natural Levees
Meander
Alluvial Fan
Deltas and Estuaries
Introduction
A strong river diverts a weak river from its path, and makes it to flow along with it
Formation
River capture happens when one river, typically a stronger or faster-flowing one, erodes its way into the drainage basin of a neighboring river, diverting the water from the weaker river and essentially “capturing” its flow, often through a process called headward erosion where the capturing river extends its channel upstream towards the other river’s headwaters, eventually diverting the water into its own course.
Introduction
V-shaped valley is a narrow valley with steeply sloped side. When the valley floor flattens out, Forming U shape its called a U- Shaped Valley
Formation
A V-shaped valley is formed by the erosive action of a river, where the flowing water cuts deep into the land, creating steep sides that meet at a point. As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion (makes river wider) becomes prominent and the valley floor flattens out, Forming U shape
What is a Gorge ? Canyon?
A “gorge” is a smaller, narrower version of a V-shaped valley with steep sides, while a “canyon” is a much larger, deeper V-shaped valley
Introduction
While potholes are smaller, circular depressions in a riverbed plunge pools are large, deep depressions at the base of a waterfall
Formation
Concentrated force of falling water carrying pebbles grind against the rock surface create these depressions
Introduction
Rapids and cataracts are both features of rivers that involve fast-moving water and obstacles. They are essentially circular movement of water. Cataracts are steeper rapids
Formation
Due to the unequal resistance of hard and soft rocks traversed by a river, the outcrop of a band of hard rock may cause a river to ‘jump’ or ‘fall’ down stream in a circular motion.
Introduction
Stepped benches along the river course in flood plains
Formation
River terraces are basically products of erosion as they result due to vertical erosion by the stream into its own depositional floodplain.
Introduction
Slow movement of water creates small channels called rills which become larger to form gullies
Formation
They are typically formed in arid areas. Arid environments often have limited vegetation cover, leaving the soil exposed and more vulnerable to erosion by water runoff. As rills develop, they can channel more water into a smaller area, deepening and widening the channel, eventually forming a gully.
Introduction
Streams and rivers and the land surface, all are included in the drainage basin. The drainage basin collects all the water within the basin and directs it to a single point. That is why it is also referred to as a funnel
Formation
A drainage basin forms as water, whether from precipitation or springs, flows downhill, creating streams and rivers that converge into a larger water body, like a river, lake, or ocean.
Types of Drainage Patterns
1) Based on weather Relating to Topography or Not
Concordant
A drainage pattern is described as concordant if it correlates to the topology and geology of the area. The Rivers which follow the general direction of slope are known as the consequent rivers. It is of 4 types based on which Streams have developed first and later
Subsequent Steam
Reconsequent Stream
Obsequent Stream
Discordant
A drainage pattern is described as discordant if it does not correlate to the topology [surface relief features] and geology [geological features based on both Endogenetic movements and exogenetic movements] of the area. In simple words: In a discordant drainage pattern, the river follows its initial path irrespective of the changes in topography.
It is of Two Types :
Antecedent : An antecedent stream is one whose path of flow within a valley was established before the mountainous structure was uplifted Hence this stream antecedates in the Process of cutting through the uplifted portion (by river), and maintains its original slope
Super Imposed : Superimposed streams is one whose valley and direction of flow were developed much later than the underlying structure, and the river possessed sufficient stream power to cut through these underlying structures to maintains its shape
Superimposed Stream
A river flowing in a set path superimposes itself on the structure
without change in its set path
Antecedent Stream
A River Flowing in its designated path will keep on following that
path irrespective of Mountain structure being uplifted
2) Based on shape of main river and subsequent Stream
Concordant
A drainage pattern is described as concordant if it correlates to the topology and geology of the area. The Rivers which follow the general direction of slope are known as the consequent rivers. It is of 4 types based on which Streams have developed first and later
Discordant
A drainage pattern is described as discordant if it does not correlate to the topology [surface relief features] and geology [geological features based on both Endogenetic movements and exogenetic movements] of the area. In simple words: In a discordant drainage pattern, the river follows its initial path irrespective of the changes in topography.
It is of Two Types :
Antecedent : An antecedent stream is one whose path of flow within a valley was established before the mountainous structure was uplifted Hence this stream antecedates in the Process of cutting through the uplifted portion (by river), and maintains its original slope
Super Imposed : Superimposed streams is one whose valley and direction of flow were developed much later than the underlying structure, and the river possessed sufficient stream power to cut through these underlying structures to maintains its shape
1.2 Fluvial Depositional Landforms
Introduction
An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit of sediment that forms at the base of mountains or hills
Formation
An alluvial fan forms when a stream of water carrying sediment, called alluvium, exits a narrow passage like a canyon or mountain gap onto a flat plain, causing the water to slow down and spread out, depositing the sediment in a fan-shaped pattern as the heavier particles settle first, followed by lighter ones, creating the distinctive fan-like landform.
Introduction
A river meander is a bend or curve in a river that forms a snake-like pattern.
Formation
A river meander forms when the flowing water in a river erodes the outer banks of a bend due to faster water velocity, causing sediment to be deposited on the inner banks of the bend, gradually creating a curving pattern as the river’s path evolves over time;
Introduction
An oxbow lake is a U-shaped or crescent-shaped lake that forms when a river’s meander is cut off.
Formation
An oxbow lake forms when a meandering river’s loop gets cut off due to erosion and deposition, creating a separate body of water; the stages include:
(1) Meandering river with pronounced bends,
(2) Increased erosion on the outer bends of the meanders,
(3) Deposition on the inner bends narrowing the “neck” of the loop,
(4) The neck erodes through, the river takes a straighter path, and the loop is isolated as an oxbow lake.
Introduction
A natural levee is a ridge of sand and mud that forms along a riverbank
Formation
When a river floods, it carries sediment with it. Over time, these deposits build up to form raised ridges that act as barriers along the river. Levees can also be artificially constructed from fill to regulate water levels.
Introduction
A point bar is a crescent-shaped ridge of sand and gravel that forms on the inside bend of a river or stream. The outside curve of a river meander, where erosion is greatest forms a small cliff. [ Note Cut Bank is Erosional Landform]
Formation
A point bar forms when a river’s flow slows down along the inside curve of a meander, causing sediment to deposit and build up over time, creating a low, curved ridge of sand and gravel on the inner bank of the river. Essentially, the slower water on the inside of the bend can’t carry as much sediment, leading to deposition and the formation of a point bar, while the faster water on the outside of the bend erodes the bank, creating a cut bank.
Introduction
A river delta is a landform that forms at the mouth of a river where it deposits sediment and meets a larger body of water. An Estuary on the other hand is a coastal body of water formed on mixing of freshwater and saltwater.
Formation
A delta is formed when a river with large bedload slows down and then spreads into number of distributaries depositing its sediment where the continental shelf is wide. An Estuary on the other hand is formed at river mouth when a river does not deposit large amounts of sediments at its mouth and has large influence of tides, (the regular rise and fall of tides allows seawater to move into the river mouth, forming the estuary)
Types of Deltas
Arcuate
This type of delta results when light depositions give rise to shallow, shifting distributaries Nile, Ganga, Indus.
Arcuate Delta
Cuspate
This is a pointed delta formed generally along strong coasts and is subjected to strong wave action. There are very few distributaries in a cuspate delta. Hudson estuary
Cuspate Delta
Birdfoot
This type of delta emerges when limestone sediment deposits do not allow downward seepage of water distributaries seem to be flowing over projections of these deposits. Mississippi river
BirdFoot Delta
2. Karst Landforms
Uvala
Sinkhole
Doline
Polje / Blind Valley
Lapies/ Karren
Pillars
Stalactite
Stalagmites
Introduction
The sandbar is the ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built over a period of time by the waves
Formation
It is formed by the process of longshore drift, which is when sediment is moved along a shoreline due to the action of waves and currents. ➜ This creates a ridge or bar of sediment overtime
Introduction
Barrier bar which gets keyed up to one end of bay creating a hook is called spit. This Hook is generally toward the quieter waters close to shore.
Formation
These are formed just in the same way a Sand Bar forms. A hooked end can form if the wind direction changes.
Introduction
When a long, narrow ridge of sand Island, runs parallel to the shore often separating a shallow lagoon or bay from the open ocean , it is called a “barrier Island”
Formation
Barrier islands can grow from spits and Bars that are broken up. These bars and Spits grow up above the water line over time forming these Island Features.
Introduction
When the mainland is attached to an island by a narrow piece of land such as a bar or a Spit it is a Tombolo
Formation
Similar to sand Bars and spits, Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ As sediment accumulates and is deposited between the island and the mainland, a ridge or bar of sediment begins to form. ➜ Over time, the build-up of sediment increases, connecting the island to the mainland
Introduction
A lagoon is a shallow body of water that is separated from a larger body of water by a natural barrier.
Formation
Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars/ spits or barrier islands. The enclosed water body so created is called a lagoon.
Introduction
A salt marsh is a coastal landform that is a low-lying, vegetated area between the land and the sea that is regularly flooded by tides.
Formation
Salt marshes usually form in sheltered coastal systems, such as lagoons , bays and estuaries where fine sediments can be deposited. Salt marshes may be formed behind a spit as well.
Introduction
A bay can be considered both an erosional and depositional landform because while the initial formation of a bay often involves erosion by waves and currents carving out a recessed area in the coastline, the sheltered area within the bay can then become a site for sediment deposition, creating beaches and other depositional features.
3. Glacial Landforms
3.1 Glacial Erosional Landforms
Arete
Madkhol Dam
Manohar Mansantosh Gad
Tiracol Fort
Manohar Int. Airport
Querim Beach
Pyramidal peak
Hanging Valley
U Shaped Valley
Introduction
The sandbar is the ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built over a period of time by the waves
Formation
It is formed by the process of longshore drift, which is when sediment is moved along a shoreline due to the action of waves and currents. ➜ This creates a ridge or bar of sediment overtime
Introduction
Barrier bar which gets keyed up to one end of bay creating a hook is called spit. This Hook is generally toward the quieter waters close to shore.
Formation
These are formed just in the same way a Sand Bar forms. A hooked end can form if the wind direction changes.
Introduction
When a long, narrow ridge of sand Island, runs parallel to the shore often separating a shallow lagoon or bay from the open ocean , it is called a “barrier Island”
Formation
Barrier islands can grow from spits and Bars that are broken up. These bars and Spits grow up above the water line over time forming these Island Features.
Introduction
When the mainland is attached to an island by a narrow piece of land such as a bar or a Spit it is a Tombolo
Formation
Similar to sand Bars and spits, Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ As sediment accumulates and is deposited between the island and the mainland, a ridge or bar of sediment begins to form. ➜ Over time, the build-up of sediment increases, connecting the island to the mainland
Introduction
A lagoon is a shallow body of water that is separated from a larger body of water by a natural barrier.
Formation
Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars/ spits or barrier islands. The enclosed water body so created is called a lagoon.
Introduction
A salt marsh is a coastal landform that is a low-lying, vegetated area between the land and the sea that is regularly flooded by tides.
Formation
Salt marshes usually form in sheltered coastal systems, such as lagoons , bays and estuaries where fine sediments can be deposited. Salt marshes may be formed behind a spit as well.
Introduction
A bay can be considered both an erosional and depositional landform because while the initial formation of a bay often involves erosion by waves and currents carving out a recessed area in the coastline, the sheltered area within the bay can then become a site for sediment deposition, creating beaches and other depositional features.
3.2 Glacial Depositional Landforms
Uvala
Sinkhole
Doline
Polje / Blind Valley
Lapies/ Karren
Pillars
Stalactite
Stalagmites
Introduction
The sandbar is the ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built over a period of time by the waves
Formation
It is formed by the process of longshore drift, which is when sediment is moved along a shoreline due to the action of waves and currents. ➜ This creates a ridge or bar of sediment overtime
Introduction
Barrier bar which gets keyed up to one end of bay creating a hook is called spit. This Hook is generally toward the quieter waters close to shore.
Formation
These are formed just in the same way a Sand Bar forms. A hooked end can form if the wind direction changes.
Introduction
When a long, narrow ridge of sand Island, runs parallel to the shore often separating a shallow lagoon or bay from the open ocean , it is called a “barrier Island”
Formation
Barrier islands can grow from spits and Bars that are broken up. These bars and Spits grow up above the water line over time forming these Island Features.
Introduction
When the mainland is attached to an island by a narrow piece of land such as a bar or a Spit it is a Tombolo
Formation
Similar to sand Bars and spits, Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ As sediment accumulates and is deposited between the island and the mainland, a ridge or bar of sediment begins to form. ➜ Over time, the build-up of sediment increases, connecting the island to the mainland
Introduction
A lagoon is a shallow body of water that is separated from a larger body of water by a natural barrier.
Formation
Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars/ spits or barrier islands. The enclosed water body so created is called a lagoon.
Introduction
A salt marsh is a coastal landform that is a low-lying, vegetated area between the land and the sea that is regularly flooded by tides.
Formation
Salt marshes usually form in sheltered coastal systems, such as lagoons , bays and estuaries where fine sediments can be deposited. Salt marshes may be formed behind a spit as well.
Introduction
A bay can be considered both an erosional and depositional landform because while the initial formation of a bay often involves erosion by waves and currents carving out a recessed area in the coastline, the sheltered area within the bay can then become a site for sediment deposition, creating beaches and other depositional features.
4. Wave -Cut Landforms
4.1 Wave-Cut Erosional Landforms
Sea Cave
Sea Arch
Sea Stack
Sea Stump
Wave - Cut Platform
Sea Cliff
Blow Hole
Sea Bay
Chasm
Introduction
A wave-cut platform is a flat rock platform that forms at the base of a sea cliff.
Formation
Waves erode a notch at the base of the cliff ➜ This overhanging rock falls ➜ The cliff material is deposited, forming a bedrock area
Introduction
A sea cliff is a steep, vertical rock face that forms along the coast.
Formation
Waves crash against the coastline, creating a notch. ➜ The erosion of the notch weakens the ground above it, causing it to collapse. ➜ The process of erosion and collapse repeats, causing the sea cliff to retreat.
Highest Sea Cliff in the World?
The highest sea cliffs in the world are on Molokai, Hawaii, and are 3,300 ft (1,010 m) tall
Introduction
A sea cave is a hollowed-out section of a cliff that forms along the ocean or lake shore
Formation
Sea caves are created by erosion from waves, which break on the rock and force water into areas of weakness in the rock.
Largest Sea Cave in the World?
Matainaka Cave in New Zealand is the world’s largest sea cave, measuring 1.54 kilometers long. It’s located on the Otago coast of New Zealand’s South Island.
Introduction
When the waves attack a rock- form from two opposite sides, it produces a hollow bridge called an Arch, These archways may have an arcuate or rectangular shape, with the opening extending below water
Formation
These are formed due to different rates of erosion typically due to the varied resistance of bedrock.
Longest Sea Arch in the World?
Xianren Bridge is a natural arch created by flowing water that has the world’s longest recorded span.
Introduction
A sea stack is a steep, isolated column of rock that stands in the ocean near the shore
Formation
Waves erode a natural hole through a headland, forming a sea arch➜ The base of the arch widens due to erosion➜ the roof collapses into the sea➜The remaining column of rock is a sea stack.
Tallest Sea Stack in the World?
Ball’s Pyramid is the world’s tallest sea stack, standing at 572 meters (1,877 ft) high. It’s located in the Pacific Ocean, 12 miles southeast of Lord Howe Island in Australia.
Introduction
A stump is the eroded remains of a stack, often looking like a lump of rock sticking up from its surroundings
Formation
The base of the stack is undercut by erosion until it collapses into a short pillar, called a stump
Introduction
A blowhole is a hole in the ground or rock that allows air or water to be forced through it. Blowholes can be found along the shore
Formation
Blowholes can form when sea caves grow upwards and landwards, creating vertical shafts. Waves can force air through these shafts, releasing pressure as a jet of spray.Blowholes can also form when there are pressure differences between a closed underground system and the surface.
Largest Blow Hole in the World?
The Kiama Blowhole in Kiama, New South Wales, Australia is the world’s largest blowhole
Introduction
A Bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay. A large bay is usually called a gulf
Formation
Waves erode the coastline, wearing away softer rocks more quickly than harder rocks. This creates bays, while harder rocks form headlands
Largest Bay in the World?
The Bay of Bengal is the world’s largest bay, covering an area of about 839,000 square miles (2,173,000 square kilometers).It is located in the northeastern Indian Ocean. It is bordered by Sri Lanka and India to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar (Burma) and the Malay Peninsula to the east.
Introduction
A Bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, a lake, or another bay. A large bay is usually called a gulf
Formation
Waves erode the coastline, wearing away softer rocks more quickly than harder rocks. This creates bays, while harder rocks form headlands
Largest Bay in the World?
The Bay of Bengal is the world’s largest bay, covering an area of about 839,000 square miles (2,173,000 square kilometers).It is located in the northeastern Indian Ocean. It is bordered by Sri Lanka and India to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar (Burma) and the Malay Peninsula to the east.
4.2 Wave – Cut Depositional Landforms
Barrier Island
Tombolo
Bay
Lagoon
Beach
Salt Marsh
Sand Bar
Sand Spit
Introduction
The sandbar is the ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built over a period of time by the waves
Formation
It is formed by the process of longshore drift, which is when sediment is moved along a shoreline due to the action of waves and currents. ➜ This creates a ridge or bar of sediment overtime
Introduction
Barrier bar which gets keyed up to one end of bay creating a hook is called spit. This Hook is generally toward the quieter waters close to shore.
Formation
These are formed just in the same way a Sand Bar forms. A hooked end can form if the wind direction changes.
Introduction
When a long, narrow ridge of sand Island, runs parallel to the shore often separating a shallow lagoon or bay from the open ocean , it is called a “barrier Island”
Formation
Barrier islands can grow from spits and Bars that are broken up. These bars and Spits grow up above the water line over time forming these Island Features.
Introduction
When the mainland is attached to an island by a narrow piece of land such as a bar or a Spit it is a Tombolo
Formation
Similar to sand Bars and spits, Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ As sediment accumulates and is deposited between the island and the mainland, a ridge or bar of sediment begins to form. ➜ Over time, the build-up of sediment increases, connecting the island to the mainland
Introduction
A lagoon is a shallow body of water that is separated from a larger body of water by a natural barrier.
Formation
Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars/ spits or barrier islands. The enclosed water body so created is called a lagoon.
Introduction
A salt marsh is a coastal landform that is a low-lying, vegetated area between the land and the sea that is regularly flooded by tides.
Formation
Salt marshes usually form in sheltered coastal systems, such as lagoons , bays and estuaries where fine sediments can be deposited. Salt marshes may be formed behind a spit as well.
Introduction
A bay can be considered both an erosional and depositional landform because while the initial formation of a bay often involves erosion by waves and currents carving out a recessed area in the coastline, the sheltered area within the bay can then become a site for sediment deposition, creating beaches and other depositional features.
5. Aeolian Landforms
Uvala
Sinkhole
Doline
Polje / Blind Valley
Lapies/ Karren
Pillars
Stalactite
Stalagmites
Introduction
The sandbar is the ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built over a period of time by the waves
Formation
It is formed by the process of longshore drift, which is when sediment is moved along a shoreline due to the action of waves and currents. ➜ This creates a ridge or bar of sediment overtime
Introduction
Barrier bar which gets keyed up to one end of bay creating a hook is called spit. This Hook is generally toward the quieter waters close to shore.
Formation
These are formed just in the same way a Sand Bar forms. A hooked end can form if the wind direction changes.
Introduction
When a long, narrow ridge of sand Island, runs parallel to the shore often separating a shallow lagoon or bay from the open ocean , it is called a “barrier Island”
Formation
Barrier islands can grow from spits and Bars that are broken up. These bars and Spits grow up above the water line over time forming these Island Features.
Introduction
When the mainland is attached to an island by a narrow piece of land such as a bar or a Spit it is a Tombolo
Formation
Similar to sand Bars and spits, Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ As sediment accumulates and is deposited between the island and the mainland, a ridge or bar of sediment begins to form. ➜ Over time, the build-up of sediment increases, connecting the island to the mainland
Introduction
A lagoon is a shallow body of water that is separated from a larger body of water by a natural barrier.
Formation
Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars/ spits or barrier islands. The enclosed water body so created is called a lagoon.
Introduction
A salt marsh is a coastal landform that is a low-lying, vegetated area between the land and the sea that is regularly flooded by tides.
Formation
Salt marshes usually form in sheltered coastal systems, such as lagoons , bays and estuaries where fine sediments can be deposited. Salt marshes may be formed behind a spit as well.
Introduction
A bay can be considered both an erosional and depositional landform because while the initial formation of a bay often involves erosion by waves and currents carving out a recessed area in the coastline, the sheltered area within the bay can then become a site for sediment deposition, creating beaches and other depositional features.
6. Lake based Landforms
Uvala
Sinkhole
Doline
Polje / Blind Valley
Lapies/ Karren
Pillars
Stalactite
Stalagmites
Introduction
The sandbar is the ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is built over a period of time by the waves
Formation
It is formed by the process of longshore drift, which is when sediment is moved along a shoreline due to the action of waves and currents. ➜ This creates a ridge or bar of sediment overtime
Introduction
Barrier bar which gets keyed up to one end of bay creating a hook is called spit. This Hook is generally toward the quieter waters close to shore.
Formation
These are formed just in the same way a Sand Bar forms. A hooked end can form if the wind direction changes.
Introduction
When a long, narrow ridge of sand Island, runs parallel to the shore often separating a shallow lagoon or bay from the open ocean , it is called a “barrier Island”
Formation
Barrier islands can grow from spits and Bars that are broken up. These bars and Spits grow up above the water line over time forming these Island Features.
Introduction
When the mainland is attached to an island by a narrow piece of land such as a bar or a Spit it is a Tombolo
Formation
Similar to sand Bars and spits, Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ As sediment accumulates and is deposited between the island and the mainland, a ridge or bar of sediment begins to form. ➜ Over time, the build-up of sediment increases, connecting the island to the mainland
Introduction
A lagoon is a shallow body of water that is separated from a larger body of water by a natural barrier.
Formation
Longshore drift moves sand out along the coast➜ The resultant landforms which remain submerged are called bars/ spits or barrier islands. The enclosed water body so created is called a lagoon.
Introduction
A salt marsh is a coastal landform that is a low-lying, vegetated area between the land and the sea that is regularly flooded by tides.
Formation
Salt marshes usually form in sheltered coastal systems, such as lagoons , bays and estuaries where fine sediments can be deposited. Salt marshes may be formed behind a spit as well.
Introduction
A bay can be considered both an erosional and depositional landform because while the initial formation of a bay often involves erosion by waves and currents carving out a recessed area in the coastline, the sheltered area within the bay can then become a site for sediment deposition, creating beaches and other depositional features.